Development from birth †19 years Essay Example for Free

Development from birth – 19 years Essay The guide below explains what you might expect from the development of the child through various ages: Physical development: this refers to the body increasing in ability and functionality and comprises of gross motor skills (using large muscles) with movement in their legs and arms whilst also developing fine motor skills (precise use of muscles) such as the movement of fingers and toes. New born babies will lie on their backs with their head held to one side yet turn their head looking for a teat or nipple. They will have primitive reflexes such as swallowing, rooting, grasping, stepping and sucking. By 1 month old head control will be still be unsteady, and their hands will be in tight fists. Babies will grasp at objects that have touched the palm of their hands. they may turn their heads and eyes in unison and smile at familiar faces, smells or sounds, they also like to observe the face of adults at feeding time. At 3 months old they can hold a small object such as a rattle for a few seconds if placed in their hand and enjoys observing movements of their own hands and play with them, kicking their legs and waving arms. They can lift their head and turn when placed on their front. At 4 months they will use their arms to support themselves when laying on their stomachs and can turn from their back to their side. They will hold onto and shake small objects. They will, with support start sitting and will gradually sit unaided by 6 months. They will raise their hands in anticipation of being lifted. At 6 months they will roll over and push their head and chest off the floor when placed on their front. Their hand grasp is more prevalent with whole hand use to pass an object from one hand to the next. At 9 months they will start to move around either by crawling or shuffling and are able to sit alone without the need of support. They will reach out for toys when sitting and poke at small items with their index finger. They will use index and middle fingers along with their thumb in a pincer grip to hold onto small objects and will take and hold a small brick in each hand. They will lift a block but are only capable of releasing it by dropping. If a young baby is held upright they will try to make stepping movements on a firm surface. They will be startled by sudden sounds or bright lights. When hungry, in pain, need changing or comforting they will cry. In their first year they will start to move around either by crawling or shuffling and eventually try to start walking with support. They will start to demonstrate hand inclination and pick up small objects using a tidy pincer grip. They enjoy have the ability to feed themselves and will enjoy doing so, holding cups with assistance. They can click 2 cubes together and put cubes into a box after first being shown had to do so. They can understand the world around them and know who their main carers are and may possibly cry when left with someone they are not familiar with. They will wave goodbye and point at things with their fingers. At 18 months they will clumsily hold a pencil or crayon and try to write with it and use their hands skilfully to arrange and move small objects,dropping things onto the floor whilst looking to see where they are. They can walk downstairs with a held hand and push or pull toys when walking. They can now walk alone and will try to kick, throw and roll a ball. They can turn handles and pull off their shoes, they can use a spoon and hold objects with a delicate pincer grip. They can squat to pick up an object from the floor and will assist with dressing/undressing. By 24 months children can walk up and down the stairs using both feet on each step and will climb onto furniture. They can put their own shoes on and start to use their favourite hand. At 3 years old they can draw dots and circles and build a tower with 6 bricks. They can climb, run and pedal a tricycle, jump from small steps and walk upstairs on alternate feet whilst also being able to walk on tiptoe, they can also kick a ball confidently. They will be able to use the toilet alone, undo buttons and thread large beads. They will clumsily hold a pencil or crayon and try to write with it enjoying painting and drawing activities and are capable of drawing a face. They will also enjoy reading books and having stories read to them, turning single pages in the book. They can build towers with up to 9 bricks and bridges with the bricks when shown. At 4 years old they can walk backwards following a line, run, hop throw, aim and catch a large ball. They can using scissors cut around an object and is able to copy a picture of a square. They can construct a large tower, do a 12 piece jigsaw and button/unbutton their clothes. They are now capable of brushing their own teeth. At the age of 5 years they can skip, run quickly, hit a ball with a bat. They can dress/undress themselves with ease, precisely use scissors and form letters whilst writing their own name. They will draw a person with a body, head and legs and a house. They can complete a 20 piece jigsaw. Between the ages of 6 7 years children will enjoy are now capable of hopping, skating roller blading, skateboarding and bike riding. They can balance on a wall or beam, build complex models and have finer control of constructing bricks, jigsaws etc. The can tie/untie laces and sew simple stitches. They will be able to do detailed drawings and take control of their pencil in a small area. Between 8 12 years they will greatly improve on their physical skills that are already acquired. Puberty will start at around 10 years old for girls with an increase in body strength and a sudden growth spurt. Through the ages of 13 19 years a child/young adults brains development will increase in line with their co-ordination and reaction times. For girls by the age of 14 puberty will be complete and periods will be starting whereas with boys puberty will be between the ages of 13 – 16 years and they will become physically stronger than girls. Social and emotional development: this refers to the development of the childs own identity and self image. Some may want to start doing things for themselves and become more independent. They will develop a sense of their own identity. Learning to live in a family unit and with others in society is a vital part of development in which will be contributed by friends and family. In the initial few months babies will recognise familiar voices and faces, they will try to people please and bay for attention by performing for their audience through laughter and giggles. They will enjoy playing games with others such as peek a boo. From birth to 4 weeks a baby will respond unequivocally to the main carer whilst imitating facial expressions. They will stare at shiny, bright objects At 1 month old they will look intently at carers and social smile for them by 6 weeks old. 4 months old they will try and captivate their carers attention by smiling and vocally. 6 months old they become fascinated with other babies and smile at them. They will interact differently to a variety of family members and begin to seek attention. They become more enamoured in social interaction, dependent on his/her personality and time spent with other children. They may use a comfort object such as a blanket or teddy and display a fear of strangers and separation anxieties when without the main carer. By 9 months old they recognise familiar and unfamiliar faces whilst showing stranger anxiety. They are now very curious in all around them. At 1 year old they become more demanding, emotionally temperamental and assertive. Temper tantrums may begin and they may become despondent about changes to their normal schedule. They may express their anger at being told not to do something and start to develop object continuity. They will begin to play alone. They can now distinguish between themselves and others and is aware of the emotions of other individuals yet still self obsessed with regards to their own view of the world. By 18 months they will show signs of stranger shyness and have tantrums when upset often know as the terrible twos They have trouble understanding the concept of sharing and believe that everything is mine They dislike changes to their routine and can be very selfish. They should now start toilet training. At 2 years old they are still reluctant to share but enjoy the company of other children and may show concern if another child becomes upset. They remain self important are starting to become emotionally stable yet still inclined to sudden mood swings. They know their own identity and are learning to have short periods of time separated from their carers such as attending nursery. At 3 years of age they become more confident and self motivated and have a greater social awareness. They may worry about not fitting in or being liked. They will play alongside others and in 2s or 3s, sharing ideas and being friendly to other children. They may also have best friends. They feel stable and emotionally secure and are less anxious with regards to separation. They are becoming more independent but still need the support and guidance of adults and may fear the loss of a carer. They begin to recognise themselves as an individual. They have a strong sense gender identity. Moral development does not normally occur until a child reaches the age of 3. By 4 years old children enjoy role play and dressing up activities. They start to take turns and respond to reasoning whilst enjoying their independence still need reassurance and encouragement. They understand united and competitive events. At 5 years of age they become absorbed in activities and have a positive sense of self awareness. They become concerned about fitting in and being liked. They establish a fear of the unknown such as monsters under the bed or ghosts. Between the ages of 6 – 7 years children to form stable friendships and are very sympathetic of the other persons needs. They tend to play in separate sex groups. They are fairly self-assured and independent with an increased sense of integrity. Friendships become vital between the ages of 8 – 12 years and are mainly same sex friendships. They are anxious of how others view them and are often hesitant with regards to changes. Between the ages of 13 – 19 years puberty and body changes along with a surge in hormones can disrupt self esteem, they may want to spend more time with friends rather than with their family. They may bow to peer pressure but may also become more self assured with regards to changes in surroundings. They need to determine transitions into adulthood. Intellectual development: These are the learning skills of concentration, understanding and memory. This area of development is greatly influenced by the learning practices a child has. They may imitate others and try to find ways of behaving in play. New born babies will stare intently at their carer and cry when a basic need requires consideration. Their head and eyes will turn towards soft light and blink in reaction to bright ones. At 1 month old they will stare and follow the direction of a dangling ball whilst gazing intently at soft lights. At 3 months they track movements of both small and large objects. At 6 months old they can automatically fix their sight onto small objects nearby and reach out to hold them. They are inquisitive and become readily distracted by movements. They will watch objects fall when in range of their vision. They like to put everything into their mouth. At 9 months they will look towards the direction of falling objects. At 12 months of age they will drop objects purposely whilst watching them fall (casting) Should an object roll out of vision they will look correctly to the area it has gone to. They can distinguish familiar individuals up to 6 metres away. They begin to point at objects of interest outside at the age of 18 months and build towers of 3 cubes when first demonstrated to. They will turn pages in books although may be several at a time rather than singular, relish picture books and point to named characters and objects. They will point to various basic parts of the body. From 3 years of age they will match 2 or 3 primary colours and paint with large brushes and make basic cuts with scissors. They can copy crosses and circles and draw a person with a head. By 5 years they are capable of copying squares and a range of letters, often done with a degree of spontaneity. They can now draw a person with a body, head, arms, legs and certain aspects. They can also draw a house. Pictures will be coloured methodically. They can now name primary colours and match 10 or more of them. They can duplicate symbols, numbers and letters and can decipher between lighter and heavier objects. They understand positioning of behind, next to and in front of. They can rote count up to 20 and know the time of day for basic activities such as school time, bedtime etc. By 6 years of age they are attaining the ability to write some words freely and copy others. They can read basic books sight reading 10 or more words. They can count up to 100 and understand the concept of half and whole. They know when it is their birthday and can predict events that are happening next. Paintings and drawings are now more intricate and sophisticated. Between the ages of 6 – 8 years they develop the capability of thinking about several things at once and comprehend the use of symbols in writing and maths etc. They are more inquisitive to the workings of his/her surroundings. They enjoy participating in games and understand rules. Between 8 – 12 years they are increasingly favouring certain subjects and apply reasoning and logic to certain issues. They can read and write with confidence and are becoming more creative in their play. They learn to transfer the knowledge gained from one situation and use it productively in the next task. Ages 13 – 19 years they develop the ability to think more complexly and will query sources of information. They are becoming more aware of global activities and occurrences. They will have a clear inclination for arts and sciences. Options with regards to their future employment and further education are being explored. Communication and speech development Non verbal communication is as vital to children as it is to adults. In fact children are more likely to use it than adults. Speech is a characteristic of development that can alter greatly without any association to other developmental bearing or to the childs intellectual being. Pre-linguistic is the term given to the stage up to approximately 12 months when a child is beginning to say its first words. Linguistic is the descriptive term given to words with meaning. Pre-linguistic stage Birth to 4 weeks a baby will cry when its basic needs are not being met i.e. hungry, needs changing, emotionally distressed. At 1 month old a baby may stop crying at the sound of a human voice (unless distraught) freeze when a sound is played near to their ear, moving their head towards the sound. Coos in reaction to their carers voice. At 3 months old a baby becomes silent and will turn its head towards the noise of a rattle nearby and make vocal sounds when being spoken to or are alone. When 6 months old they will giggle and shriek loudly during play. They respond variably to different tones of voices. They make baby vowel sounds such as goo ga ga and aah-aah They begin to react to sounds that are out of vision with the appropriate visual response. Babies will shout for attention from 9 months and vocalises for a connection. They will begin to use dual syllable words such as baba mam-mam and dad-dad They duplicate adult vocal sounds like lip smacking or coughing. They can comprehend the meaning of no and bye-bye. They will have an instantaneous reaction to to a hearing test performed out of vision and behind the baby. At 1 years of age a baby will know its own name and can perceive roughly 20 words in context. They can comprehend simple messages for example close your eyes, clap hands. They will use gibberish in conversation form with majority vowel sounds. Linguistic stage 12 – 18 months, babies will use between 6 – 20 recognisable words as their first words and can understand much more of what is spoken to them. They will reverberate leading or last words in sentences. They will try to affiliate themselves in nursery rhymes and respond appropriately to simple instructions such as pick up your toy or pass me your cup At 18 – 24 months they begin to make basic 2 word sentences and can use more than 200 words by the age of 2 years old. Their speech will be telegraphic in that they will use key vital words but may miss out connective ones. They will refer to their own name and talk to themselves during play themed activities. Between the ages of 2 – 3 years they have a increasing expanse of dialect including plurals. They can participate in simple conversations and enjoy the repetitiveness of the their favourite stories being re told. They can now rote count to 10. Between 3 – 4 years their speech will understood by strangers and can form short, grammatically accurate sentences. Although they may still make errors of tenses they now begin to ask many questions such as why? who? and how? They can name parts of their body and also name animals. Between the years of 4 – 8 speech is more fluent and precise, they will use a more expressive language. They can inform you of their full name, address and birthday and will enjoy jokes, songs and rhymes etc. They have a increasing expanse of vocabulary – 5,000 words by the age of 5. They will recognise when an unfamiliar word is used and will question the meaning of it and can imitate correctly accents that they have heard. They can form most sounds with some residual trouble at some letter groups. From 8 years onwards the majority of children are fluent speakers, writers and readers off their own language with the enhanced use of peer influenced, de coded speech. With the autistic child I work along side I follow the guidelines of P Levels which is a programme that gives me information on the varying categories of the developmental processs. I then can record each and every stage my autistic pupil is at and refer to what his expectations are and also via his Individual Educational Learning Plan (IEP)

Sex DIfferences Essay Example for Free

Sex DIfferences Essay This experiment performed by the males and females in the Tuesday 4pm psychology lab, was done as a replication of the Halari et al experiment in London in 2005. The hypothesis in the original experiment was that women will, on average, gain a higher verbal fluency score than men and men will, on average, perform more accurately than women on mental rotation. The results obtained from Halari et al’s (2005) clearly prove this hypothesis correct. The results also rejected the null hypothesis which says that men and women will not differ with respect to verbal and spatial performance. Our replication experiment also proved the hypothesis of Halari et al’s (2005) experiment correct and rejected the null experiment. Our experiment followed a certain methodology. In the mental rotation task, each participant was to answer 50 questions which contained the stimuli; each of which showed 2 shapes rotated and the participants were to judge whether they are identical or not. As expected males had a higher accuracy level in this this task compared to females. In the verbal fluency task, the participants were given 3 categories; fruits, vegetables and animals. They had the instruction to write down as many items from the relevant categories as possible. As expected females had a higher accuracy level than the males in this task. In the methodology used in our experiment did contain some weaknesses that may have influenced the results. Our experiment was as free from bias as possible in order to make the results accurate and reliable. For the mental rotation task, every participant received a different set of stimuli, so that the participants could not copy each other. This produced reliable results. However this methodlogy contains a debility. The stimuli ranged from sets of easily distinguishable shapes to much harder ones. Since the stimuli was randomly chosen for each participant it is possible that one participant may have received all the hard ones (females) and another may have received all the easily recognisable ones (males). Another debility in this methodology was that the set of stimuli varied in difficulty as discussed earlier. Also their rotation patterns varied. So some sets were just rotated once while other sets were rotated to an extent where some of  the faces were indistinguishable hence breaking the pattern we perceive causing our minds to get muddled in recognising the stimuli correctly. This is clear in the categories used in the verbal fluency task which have no form of gender bias whatsoever. The categories chosen are generic and known well to both males and females. An example of a gender bias category would be something like computers which is more biased towards males than females. While a catergory more bias towards females would be make up. However despite having no gender difference there was a weakness present in this method; english as a second language. Our group of participants contained people of different ethnicities and nationalities. Which meant that not all have english as their first language. This in turn proves to be a weakness to our expeirment as those people who possess english as a second language, wont be able to think of english words as fast as in their own language, (all words written had to be in english). This would have posed a problem for such participants as they would have had to think of a word in their own language and then translate it into english. This could have decreased some of the participants performance as time span was limited to one minute. Overall, the results obtained from this experiment clearly suggest that men and women specialise in different cognitive abilities in relation to spatial capacity and verbal competency. These results solidify that boys and girls-and men and women-are programmed by evolution to behave differently from one another is now widely accepted, (The Economist, 2006). These results indicate the theory posed by Harvard president, Larry Summers to be true. He pointed out the detail that the number of women in professions which require a spatial understanding such as mathematics, engineering are few, (The Economist, 2006). This however does not state that women have no spatial capability, it only suggests that in comparison to men women are weaker in spatial understanding. Nevertheless this does not say that these abilities are completely innate. These cognitive abilties can be trained, so a woman with a PHD in engineering will definietly have a higher spatial capability than a man working at Coun tddown. According to our results men and women vary in terms of cognitive abilities. Men appear to be better at spatial tasks while females at verbal fluency. This variation is deemed as occuring due to the common battle; nature vs nurture. It is said that the social upbringing plays a big part in understanding the reasons for this variation. When a child is born depending on the gender, parents tend to choose either blue or pink for that child. This stereotype created by society may unwillingly fit young boys and girls into their stereotypical roles. According to, The Economist (2006) it was believed that boys and girls prefer different toys. Where boys prefer cars, trucks and guns, girls prefer dolls and tea sets. However this was disapproved and it was found that girls and boys are already different when they are born due to the hormone, testosterone. When a child is born, it experiences two surges of testosterone- one during gestation and one shortly after birth, (The Economist, 2006). The production of testosterone is higher in males than in females hence creating the ‘boy-like’ behaviour we all talk about. This testosterone is said to be the reason for why boys tend to look at mobile phones longer than people’s faces, the way females do. But the basic theory is that the high levels of testosterone in males produces the rough play. While the low levels in females generate the nurturing tendency in them hence causing them to prefer dolls and tea sets, (The Economist, 2006). Unlike the Halari et al, (2005), the experiments conducted to prove this theory did not contain hormone tests. Hence we cannot conclude hormone levels being the main factor responsible for the variance in cognitive abilities. It is more commonly believed though that the interlacing of both social upbringing and hormone levels is what causes these differences. Although women have that low level of testosterone, by nature they are constructed to be the nurturers. Therefore females tend to prefer the dolls to play with as it is an indication towards their future role as a mother where it is needed that they speak and interact more often with their children. Women on average speak 20000 words a day, 13000 more than men, (Mail Online, 2013). This confirms the findings in our experiment where females were found to have a higher verbal competency. At the same time by nature males are constructed to be the strong protectors. Therefore males tend to prefer the cars or guns to play with indicating towards warrior-like behaviour. This point is also argued by The Economist, (2006). They believe these differences are genetically there via hormone levels and the social stereotyping solidifies the roles that they are genetically made for. This experiment was carried out to distinguish the differences between males and females on a cognitive level. The mental rotation task which tested for spatial ability exhibitied an inclination towards the males as their accuracy levels were higher than the females. However, the verbal fluency task exhibited an inclination towards the females as their accuracy levels were higher than the males. The results obatined from these two independent tests were straight forward, though both can be bettered. The spatial task deduced that males possessed a higher spatial ability than females however the task was not closely related to real life. A true test would have been one that would have provided us with examples of real life where these abilities would have needed to be used. For example, giving the participants a set location to reach and allowing them to guide themselves there. This task would have displayed spatial ability in real life conditions. The verbal fluency task concluded that females possessed a higher vocabulary level however this task lacks in fairness in terms of language. Not every participant had english as their first language causing them difficulty within the one minute time limit. To better this limitation, perhaps next time all participants could be of same background with english as their first language. Also since we replicated the Halari et al (2005) experiment perhaps a better imitation would have been to also carry out the hormone tests. With the tasks we performed the results suggested that men were better at spatial tasks and females at verbal fluency however we cannot generalise this statement. Thus the hormone tests may help us solidify this conclusion. This theory is proved by our experiment as well. Although our experiment did not contain hormone testing like the Halari et al, (2005) our results concluded that males have a higher spatial capacity. This ability is an indication at the warrior-like protector behaviour. Females were concluded to have a higher verbal competency. The results we obtained from our replication of the Halari et al, (2005) helped us conclude the difference between the cognitive abilities in males and females hence proving our hypothesis correct.

Literature Review on Polygamy

Literature Review on Polygamy Polygamy is an intricate phenomenon and a result of power relations, with profound social, cultural, financial, and political roots. Regardless of being prohibited in numerous nations, the practice holds on and has been connected with women marginalization and emotional well-being sequelae. In this study, Daoud, Shoham-Vardi, Urquia and Campo, (2014) tried to enhance comprehension of this progressing, complex phenomenon by analyzing the commitment of financial position, social support to the abundance of depressive side effects and poor self-appraised wellbeing among women in polygamous marriages contrasted with women in monogamous marriages. Measuring the commitment of these elements could encourage approaches and mediations went for ensuring womens psychological wellness. The research was directed among an example of Arab Bedouin women living in a marginalized group in southern Israel (N=464, age 18-50). The females were actually met in 2008-2009. The researchers used logistic regr ession models to figure the commitment of Socio economic position (as characterized by the women training, family SEP, and family attributes) and social support to abundance of depressive indications and poor SRH among members in polygamous versus monogamous marriages. Results showed that around 23% of the members were in polygamous marriages. These women announced twice over chances of depressive signs and poorer self-rated health than those in monogamous marriages. Females training changed these affiliations marginally, yet family SEP and family unit attributes brought about for all intents and purposes no further change. Social bolster lessened the chances for poor SRH and DS by around 23% and 28%, respectively. Polygamy is connected with higher hazard for poor emotional wellness of women paying little mind to their SEP and training. Social bolster appears to have some defensive impact. Another study which was led by Al-Krenawi, Graham and Izzeldin (2001). In this research the sample was taken from refugee camps outside Gaza City. Snowball sampling technique was used to collect the sample of 187 females (100 senior or first spouses, 87 junior or second wives) in polygamous marriages. They completed questionnaires basic demographic information, Rosenbergs Self-Esteem (SE), and the Brief Symptom Inventory (BSI). Senior and junior spouses experienced crowded housing conditions. Senior wives perceived fundamentally more financial issues than did junior wives. In perceived relationship fulfillment significant difference occurred, with junior spouses less disappointed than senior wives. Significant differences occurred in five measurements of the BSI: somatization, interpersonal affectability, gloom, nervousness, and phobic uneasiness, with senior spouses scoring higher than junior wives on all subscales. Self-esteem scores were altogether lower among senior than junior s pouses. Socio-demographic and psychological discoveries are broke down in connection to financial, interpersonal, and intra-familial stressors, and social arrangement settings. On the other hand, Chaleby, (1985) examined that whether Kuwaiti spouses of polygamous marriages were extremely represented to in the inpatient psychiatric instead of the general public. A second intention was to decide the degree of the relationship between psychiatric issue and marital condition. Preliminary data showed that the rate of spouses of polygamous marriages was essentially more prominent in the inpatient psychiatric populace than in the all-inclusive community of Kuwait, as reflected in the 1975 registration. Moreover, the outcomes recommended a relationship between the way of psychiatric issue and the conjugal circumstance. Exchange clarifications of the information are progressed, and the requirement for controlled future studies drafted. However, Slonim, Nevo and Al-Krenawi (2006) conducted a study. For this study, the researchers interviewed 10 polygamous families, who were living in a Bedouin Arab town in the south of Israel. Every one of the 10 families were comprising of 1 spouse, 2 wives, and kids. Five individuals were met in every family: first spouse, second wife, the oldest child of first and second wife, and the husband. Among 10 families five families were viewed as well-working families and five as ineffectively working. Results revealed that polygamy is difficult in both well-working and ineffectively working families, especially for spouses. In any case, there are numerous customs and mastery that encourage individuals from the family to function well. Among them are acknowledgment of polygamy as Gods desire or fate, square with equal distribution of resources among both families by the spouse, partition between the two families, evasion of minor clashes and differences, keeping up a disposition of rega rd toward the other wife, and permitting open communication among all siblings, children and the other mother. Researchers likewise examined the need to create, execute, and assess family mediation programs for polygamous families among various communities in the world. In like manner, working with polygamous families some clinical implications are likewise investigated. A report of research which depends on those females who were being found in essential medicinal services focuses by Al-Krenawi. The sample comprises of 126 Bedouin-Arab women from polygamous families (1999). Of these, 94 were senior spouses who were trailed by another wife in the marriage, and 32 were junior wives, the latest wife joining the marriage. Information uncovered that senior spouses showed lower self-esteem when contrasted with junior wives. Findings additionally revealed that senior spouses showed poorer associations with their husbands contrasted with their junior counterparts. Often when a spouse wedded a second wife, the marriage could be founded on adoration, instead of parental course of action, a trade, or relationship as in the first. These variables likewise add to the senior spouses low self-esteem and marital disappointment. Furthermore, another study was conducted by Al-Krenawi, Graham and Al-Krenawi (1997) this study examined the information in view of understudy documents of 25 Bedouin-Arab children born to senior mothers of polygamous families. The interviews were conducted with children teachers and mothers. Mothers reported that their children had an assortment of behavioral issues, and below average academic achievement. Mothers griped of substantial side effects, financial issues, poor relations with the spouse, and competition and desire between the co-wives and among the co-wives children. Social work practice ought to perceive the social and individual essentialness of polygamy to relatives; value the noteworthiness of polygamy to childrens functioning; select children as an objective framework for intercession; and strengthen the Islamic value base for mediations.

Business Essays Corporate Governance

Business Essays Corporate Governance Corporate Governance Executive Summary The main goal of the report is to evaluate the current corporate governance of a certain organization. In this report, the company that has given emphasis is a food retailing company which operates in UK. This company has been able to have effective corporate governance. However, there are still issues that should be given attention in order to ensure that the company is implementing effective corporate governance. The report includes the analysis of the corporate governance structure of the company as well as the issues concerning the board of the organisation. Furthermore, this report also analyses the positive and the negative aspects of the corporate governance implemented in the organisation.All in all it can be concluded that the company has been able to have as strong and systematic corporate governance to ensure quality output. Late in the 1980s, it became apparent that a fundamental shift in the power relationship between a firm’s shareholders and its professional managers was taking place. Shareholders increased their control over the firm’s professional managers, demanding that managers respond more quickly to poor financial performance and to changes in the competitive environment. Stockholders were becoming increasingly dissatisfied with management’s slowness and the ineffectiveness of their actions in trying to adapt to new environmental conditions. Many stockholders became convinced that management did not keep the shareholders’ interests in mind while developing and implementing new strategies. Numerous stories have appeared in the business press chronicling the efforts of shareholders to exert control over corporate management. Fortune magazine’s January 11, 1993, issue featured a cover story by T. Stewart titled â€Å"The King Is Dead,† proclaiming the death of the imperial corporate presidency (Chaganti Sherman, 1998). An increasing number of chief executive officers have been forced to relinquish control of their organizations to others who will more quickly implement massive corporate change. According to Stapledon (1996), corporate governance can be defined as a system that is used in order to direct and control companies. As a matter of fact, this idea applies to all business sectors all throughout the world such as the banking institutions, financial corporations and other types of businesses such as the retailing industry. In particular, corporate governance refers to the examination of the control of a company as utilized by its directors. In accordance to theory, the directors of public companies are held responsible for their action by their shareholders (Davies, 1999). On the other hand, the authority of the shareholders to influence the behavior of the company directors is limited in practice and is rarely exercised. This then provides directors of considerable power to take action as they see fit. However, this is not always the case as it appears to be relatively different form that of the government in which the action of the officials is slightly restrained b y certain actions of the people it governs. Corporate governance, as a term, has come to imply good, in the non-moral as well as the moral sense. Its non-moral applications include efficient decision making, appropriate resource allocation, strategic planning, and so on (Monks Minow, 2001). Nonetheless, in its moral sense good corporate governance has come to be seen as promoting an ethical climate that is both morally appropriate in itself, and consequentially appropriate in that ethical behavior in business is reflected in desirable commercial outcomes (Francis, 2000). Thus, the links here are with due diligence, directors duties, and the general tightening of corporate responsibility. Corporate governance should set a proper example of good intent, and provide for those lower in corporate hierarchies the clear message that it is â€Å"do as I do† as well as â€Å"do as I say† (Francis, 2000). Middle and lower management find it hard to be ethical when it seems that the top of the corporate hierarchy have no commitment. The message of sincerity will always filter down, and no amount of deception will foster the view that a board is ethical when it plainly is not. Additionally, the commitment to ethical corporate governance by a board will enhance the prospects of an ethical infrastructure within the organization. That ethical infrastructure is a manifestation of the commitment, a means of preventing and resolving ethical problems, and an impressive demonstration of sincerity. Primarily, the objective of this paper is to analyse the corporate governance implemented in the company. Herein, the company that will be given emphasis is a food retailing company. Overview of the Company Kay (1995) stated that food retailing in Britain is dominated by six chains and that the oldest and largest is the company that will be analysed in this report. The founder started the company by establishing its first grocery store in south London over a century ago, and the family tradition and the philosophy of good quality products at competitive prices have remained central to the firm ever since. Conservatively managed, the company came to the stock market only in 1973 and since then has expanded steadily from its loyal, and mostly southern, customer base. Founded in the year 1869 in London, John and his wife established their first shop, a dairy business in an area called Drury Lane. Because of the fact that Drury Lane was considered as one of the underdeveloped areas in the city back then, the shop managed to gain recognition in the area as it had products that were inexpensive despite the fact that they were of high-quality. Due to the business’ resounding success, two more shops later on opened at other streets. In the year 1882, the firm already had four shops that were in operation. But this didn’t stop the owner from further expanding his business. Hence, he unveiled his plans to have a storehouse in a town in northwest London in order to accommodate his growing number of supplies. At the same time, it was in this place that the first brand product of the company, namely bacon kilns, was made. Consequently, it was in the same year that the company opened its first branch in a town called Croydon. Unlike the other towns, Croydon was prosperous. And so, the shop here sold superior quality products. Not to mention, it looked much better than the previous shops that had opened. From here on, Sainsbury would continue to grow. At present, this food retailing has been able to hold on to the lead in the market. As a matter of fact, the company is pretty much advanced in many aspects, especially with regards to technology and of course, its fresh products. The company was the first to be able to use scanning and computerized stock control technology. In addition, it had implemented certain techniques such as sales-based ordering. All-in-all, these factors contributed greatly to the company’s competitive advantage that it is currently enjoying. Not to mention, its computerized energy management has helped bring down the consumption of energy. Moving on, the firm has a wide range of products. In fact, during the year 1994, its number of products multiplied more than twice its original number. And as of the moment, the business continues to pride itself with its specialty in fresh foods such as fruits, breads and low-fat milks. Even up to now, their customers continue to demand for even better products which the company efficiently responds to. The corporation is now mainly concentrated on their business in the UK (United Kingdom). This includes the supermarkets, the bank and its recently acquired stores which sells bells. Moreover, the company now has other products which are not food-associated such as home equipment, beauty products, clothing apparel and other general merchandise. As of March 2004, figures indicate that the firm is operating at least 583 supermarkets and it also has 50 banking centers which are housed in the stores themselves and as a result, the workforce has ballooned to about 153,000 people. Nature and Style of Governance It can be said that the company has a very good framework that has been established in order to deal with different corporate matters. In fact, there is usually a properly structured program that is further reinforced by company policies and other procedures for the proper guidance of the directors in their daily duties. Consequently, the company has a clear reference guide to its business operations and corporate governance. The Board of Directors which oversee the businesses and the decision-making routines as well as the financial aspect of things, keeps watch. In addition, this includes the maintenance of the standards with regards to corporate governance in the corporation’s different sectors. The Board is made up of ten directors; two are executive while six are non-executive. Because of this, there is a fair division of responsibilities and other tasks among them. And while the non-executive directors are independent from the others, they are still able to contribute their experience and knowledge during Board discussions. Without a doubt, The Board is in-charge of caring for the company’s operations, assets, and its shareholders. All-in-all, the board aims to work with these factors in the hopes of maximizing performance. Because of this, it is The Board that is responsible for the finalization of budgets and strategic plans. And in order to ensure the firm’s competent operations, The Board conducts a monthly review of the company’s businesses in relation to its financial movements. Furthermore, there is a company law that obliges The Board of Directors to carefully prepare each year, a financial report that would have to be accurate and reliable reflecting the true state of the company. All things considered, The Board of Directors is the one that is responsible for the proper safekeeping of accounting statements and to ensure that these records are precise and truthful. In addition, the board is in-charge of guarding the company’s other assets as well as making the necessary steps in order to prevent complications such as fraud and other types of risks. Aside from the board of directors, the company also has other committees as part of their corporate governance. Just like the board, other committees have a well-established reference guide which also discusses their duties and their scope of authority within the corporation.Composed typically of independent directors who are non-executive, the remuneration committee handles the outline for the company’s remuneration policy which would eventually be reviewed by the board. Moreover, this group is also responsible for the various remuneration packages that are given to executive directors. On the other hand, there is also a nomination committee which is also made up of mostly non-executive directors. The responsibility of this group is to recommend to The Board on which people should be appointed as directors. Finally, there is also a group known as the audit committee. Compared to the other two, the members of this committee is purely composed of non-executive directors. This group’s duty is to make proper recommendations with regards to the company’s accounting policies as well as overseeing financial control within the corporation (Sternberg, 1998) . For this reason, the committee usually receives and reviews financial reports and other statements delivered to them. Then, they make a comprehensive report before they submit it to The Board. Of course, there is also the group’s evaluation of the risks involved which has always been done to assist with the company’s next business move, and have further control of the corporation’s different operations. Issues Concerning the Board The board of directors is responsible for ensuring that the organization always has the best business performance and corporate governance. However, there are several issues that concern the board. One of which is in terms of the level of skill and care expected of the directors, specifically the non-executive directors. All non-executives should take note of the following comments in the Report, which could well foreshadow the approach of a court: â€Å"It must be recognised that non-executive directors may bring different skills to a board, some quite specialised, and that such persons may have limited accounting experience. However, accounting is not so complicated that such directors should be excused responsibility for the accounts. Accounting issues can be clearly explained so as to be understood by sensible laymen. If accounts are gone through carefully, explaining significant items in them, laymen should be able to ask pertinent questions and make informed judgments thereon. If, after all this, the layman cannot understand the companys accounts, then he ought not to be a director of that company. Often it is the director with little accounting experience whose common sense may lead him to question what those with accountancy experience may let pass. The accountings issues in respect of which some make criticisms were nearly all ones which involved no accounting complexity and what was acceptable and what was not should have been obvious to any reasonable director possessed of the facts who sensibly applied his mind to the issue. In most instances, those directors who decided to adopt the accounting were in a better position than the auditors to determine whether the treatment applied was acceptable or not. Those directors were thus not entitled to suspend their own independent judgment and rely upon the fact that the auditors failed to prevent them from adopting an unacceptable course. Another issue that concerns the Board is in terms of inadequate financial information. There are time that some of the members of the board, never prepared or presented to the Board any consolidated budgets or managements accounts which brought together the budgets and results of all the divisions in the Group. The absence of consolidated management accounts facilitated the practice of unacceptable year end adjustments being made by the accountant directors, unbeknown to most of the other directors, to create extra reported profits. In the last few years, the first the board as a whole knew of the results to be published was when the preliminary or interim announcement was circulated for information at the close of the board meeting that invariably occurred the day prior to announcement. In effect, the board as a whole never discussed the details of the results or what lay behind them. The main boards lack of understanding of the composition of the reported results was an extraordinary state of affairs which no director should ever have tolerated. Positive Aspects of Governance The Board has been able to attain complete control of all matters regarding the company. Their self-perseverance and obligation to their duties and finally, their obedience to the company laws all contribute to the development of the corporation. As such, The Board constantly believes that all the data pertaining to financial information and other facts regarding to their operations that are currently being used is reliable. The Board’s authority is clearly recognized within the company. And because of this, it is able to have a solid grip on the corporation’s actual operations, stakeholders and its financial concerns. Needless to say, because of the corporation’s proper structure and its commitment to the stakeholders and to the community as well, the board of directors has proven that it can efficiently handle both its ethical and legal responsibilities. Furthermore, the company is currently maintaining good relations and open communications with its investors. As a matter of fact, shareholders are regularly invited by the corporation whenever there are gatherings to discuss trade updates. Moreover, whenever there is an annual general meeting, investors get the chance to meet The Board members themselves. And of course, for private investors, they can also access the company’s website for various shareholder services. Undoubtedly, the company has good consideration for all of its stakeholders; past, present and future. There definitely seems to be a very well planned framework in the firm’s corporate division. It has good policies and procedures with regards to financial matters and operational concerns. Its procedure of assessing the different kinds of situations that come up is certainly a good move on their part. Not to mention, they have maintained good relations with their stakeholders. And finally, The Boardâ€⠄¢s authority is unsurpassed. Clearly, these facts prove the strength of the company’s corporate governance structure. Negative Aspects The weakness on this case however, is the fact that it cannot always be assured that there are no losses or other errors which may result from mistakes and inconsistencies by one of the committees or employees involved. In addition, having diverse populations, there can be a possibility of having internal problems between members who have different culture and beliefs. In addition, some problems occur in terms of giving value to the companies’ shareholders. There are times that the shareholder is not given the enough information about the status of the company, specifically that shareholder which have a small part in the business. This happens when the board of directors does not give value to their shareholders. Other negative aspects include the imperfection of financial reporting procedures which may definitely result in ineffective corporate governance. Recommendation Corporate governance is said to be one of the most important aspects to be considered in an industry. Hence, it is recommended that the company should be able to determine the most appropriate and effective corporate governance structure and approach so as to ensure that the business will adhere to all social responsibilities, legal and ethical aspects. In addition it is also recommended that this food retailing industry should give value not only to its customers and employees but most especially to the shareholders who have trusted the company and its capabilities. The company must be able to align carefully their corporate governance approach with its organizational objectives. Conclusion Corporate governance is a process which is concerned about how corporations are managed, how managers are governed, what questions face by boards of directors and the accountability a corporation has to shareholders. In this case, it can be seen that the food retailing industry has been able to implement effective corporate governance which guides the organization to become more competitive in the marketplace. Accordingly the issues concerning the board include the level of skill and care expected of the directors and inadequate financial information. In order for the organization to address the issue, the members of the board are trying to create a resolution for these issues. In terms of positive aspects, the members of the company have been able to contribute well in ensuring competitive performance of the company. The board of directors of this organization ensures that all their actions are legal and adheres to business ethics. In addition, they also ensure that their social responsibility is also incorporated with their accountabilities. Although the company has positive aspects, it also has its negative aspects. One of which adheres to the notion that, because of the mistakes and inconsistencies of the individual involved, it cannot always be assured that there will be no losses or errors that will occur. In ability to handle diversities and differences is also a negative aspect that can be attached with the company’s corporate governance practice. Lastly, inability to ensure shareholder value is another negative aspect of the company. It is said that the shareholder is regarded as the central stakeholder of each industry. It can be concluded that in order for the company to have a competitive business performance, the company must start from within, from its corporate governance. Reference Chaganti, R., Sherman, H. (1998). Corporate Governance and the Timeliness of Change: Reorientation in 100 American Firms. Westport, CT: Quorum Books. Davies, A. (1999). A strategic approach to corporate governance. London: Gower Publishing Limited. Francis, R. (2000). Ethics and Corporate Governance: An Australian Handbook. Sydney, N.S.W.: University of New South Wales Press. Kay, J. (1995). Foundations of Corporate Success: How Business Strategies Add Value. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Monks, R.A.G. and Minow, N. (2001). Corporate governance. 2nd ed. Oxford: Blackwell Publishes Ltd. Stapledon, G. (1996). Institutional Shareholders and Corporate Governance. Oxford: Clarendon Press. Sternberg, E. (1998). Corporate governance: accountability in the marketplace. London: The Institute of Economic Affairs.

The Problems And Prospects Of Tourism In Bangladesh Tourism Essay

The Problems And Prospects Of Tourism In Bangladesh Tourism Essay Bangladesh is home to numerous flora and fauna and possesses many panoramic beauties but most of them are unexplored. Having all the minimum requirements, the tourism industry could not develop adequately in the country due to the unwillingness of the governments. Currently, minimum infra-structural arrangement is developing, role of government is now positive, private and public organizations have step forward side by side to attract the local and foreign tourists, researchers, dignitaries and foreign delegates. The aim of the research is to identify the challenges and future prospects of the industry. This study will facilitate the decision makers to assess the intensity of the problem and to plan accurate measures for the development of tourism industry in Bangladesh which might contribute a big share in the GDP of Bangladesh. The researcher has chosen this research topic out of his personal interest: Bangladesh is his homeland and is blended in his blood and flesh. Apathy of the previous governments led the researcher to explore the challenges and future possibilities of the tourism sector in Bangladesh. The researcher expects to emphasize the future development of tourism here in comparison with other regional and global tourist destinations. Research Question Located on the north-eastern side of the South Asian subcontinent, Bangladesh a flat alluvial plain, criss-crossed by the worlds three mighty river systems, is bordered by India in the east, west and north; Myanmar in the south-east and by the bay of Bengal in the south. The land mass of 144,000 sq.km is home to nearly 140 million people. Covered with virgin forests, the slopes and valleys of the country are home to numerous flora and fauna. The worlds largest mangrove forest and the habitat of the Royal Bengal Tiger, the Sundarbans is located in the south. In the south-east, the country has a 120 km long, perhaps the worlds longest beach of soft silvery sand in a Riviera-like setting with crescent-shaped low hills overlooking the Bay of Bengal. Bangladesh is endowed with natural resources and the potential for a tourism industry. The main focus of this research aims to answer the question: What problems does Bangladesh face and what might be the prospects as a tourist destination? In order to analyse the terminology, problems and prospects, the researcher is not only required to explore both positive and negative aspects but also to highlight the past scenario along with the future assessment of tourism in Bangladesh. For answering the research question efficiently, the following aims are set. Aims To identify the challenge tourism industry currently facing. To explore the future possible development. To illustrate the role of the public and private sector in developing tourism in Bangladesh. In order to successfully conduct the research, the above stated aims require precise objectives. That is why the researcher has applied the following objectives. Objectives To review academic literature relating to tourism development. To examine secondary documents relating to the challenges and development of tourism in Bangladesh. Suggest recommendation for the future development of tourism industry in Bangladesh based on the literature and stakeholders views. The researcher has adopted a qualitative methodology for conducting this research most effectively. This research includes the view of the representatives from government bodies and private sector business-owners. Data from such organizations and freelance journalists and their opinions on tourism planning, problems and prospects are analysed in conducting the research paper which has helped the researcher to offer recommendations at the destination. Tourism is not associated with aristocracy any more rather every person can afford now. With the passage of time, it has grown to such dimensions that it is considered as an important industry. The promotion of tourism as an industry serves multi-pronged interest which includes preserving cultural heritage, protecting arts and culture, interaction of different religion, exchange of views, and generation of foreign exchange and so on. For last couple of years, Bangladesh has been highlighted as an attractive destination for tourists. Sundarbans and Coxs Bazar have been included in the worldwide New7Wonders of Nature campaign among more than 440 candidate locations from 220 countries. World leading publisher of travel guides and guidebooks, Lonely Planet, last year recommended Bangladesh as one of the top ten interesting travel destination in 2009 (Views On Tourism, 2008). Therefore, the aim of the researcher is to explore the challenges and opportunities relating to the development of tourism in Bangladesh. The areas of literature in this paper include tourism in the developing world, tourism in South Asia and sustainable tourism planning and development. A context chapter on tourism industry in Bangladesh is also included to provide more detailed information. The researcher has tried to depict the scenario of current challenges and future opportunities of tourism industry in Bangladesh through his research paper but it does not reflect the entire picture of the emerging industry. Thus, future researchers can be conducted considering the research paper as a case study. Literature Review The Tourism Industry Tourism comprises the activities of persons travelling to and staying in places outside their usual environment for not more than one consecutive year for leisure, business and other purposes not related to the exercise of an activity remunerated from within the place visited. (UNWTO) According to Mathieson and Wall, tourism is the temporary movement of people from their natural places of living or work to destinations, their activities, and the amenities and services to meet their needs. Each and every destination has impact on the area or the country. A Destination opens the door to demonstrate cultural heritage, exchange views, generate foreign exchange, develop the employment scenario, and strengthen the revenue reserve of the government and so on. Negative impacts include loss of cultural identity, environmental damage, and spread of infectious disease. Figure 1: Butlers Tourist Lifecycle (Source: Destination Recovery Services, 2007) Butler, in his article proposed a widely-accepted model of the lifecycle of a tourist destination. The basic idea his model is that a destination begins as a relatively unknown and visitors initially come in small numbers restricted by lack of access, facilities, and local knowledge. As more people discover the destination, the word spreads about its attractions and the amenities which results into rapid development and expansion of business. Future of the destination fluctuates very much depending on the discovery, more improved amenities of another destination. Demand of any destination is related to more and more investment because tourists wish to experience new and exceptional facilities and ambiences. Popularity of a destination depends on a number of factors and the tourism industry is very uncertain (McElroy Albuquerque, 2002). Without frequent renovation, a destination cannot draw the attention of the tourists. Political unrests, financial turmoil, natural disasters, epidemic diseases, terrorist threats and lack of security can turn down the popularity of a destination. Tourism in the Developing World and in South Asia Tourists now find European and North American destinations less attractive and intend to travel to LDCs (Telfer and Sharpley, 2008). One of the reasons is rapid emergence of tourism in LDCs and another is financial advantages than the traditional destinations from the first world. Tourism operations by MNCs in LDCs create new opportunities and different kind of arrangement which the tourists always look for. Most of the South Asian countries are booming in their tourism sectors. Among all the South Asian nations, India and the Maldives receive the most foreign currencies. Sri Lanka is not behind the race and the policy makers of the country declared 2010 as the year of tourism. They are promoting their twelve different components throughout the year. The Maldives is one of the sensual and honeymoon destinations of the world. Each and every state of India is also promoting their own state in every way possible. The authority of Bangladesh at last realised the importance of tourism development to add extra revenue to the GDP of the country. Ministry of Civil Aviation and Tourism along with PPP has agreed to bring the tourism industry of the country forward. GoB has already declared to observe 2011 as the year of tourism and allocated Tk. 2.83 billion for the FY 2010-11 (Ministry of Finance), the highest ever allocation in tourism sector. Private sectors are more concerned in building infrastructures i.e. hotels, motels, resorts, amusement parks. Sustainable Tourism Four types of stakeholders including government authorities, the local business community, the local community and visitors remain involved in tourism at any destination (Bushell, 2001). For developing a successful tourist destination, the stakeholders are required to formulate an integrated plan. If all stakeholders do their part accordingly and remain responsible for their own actions, the sector of tourism will surely flourish. Sustainable tourism should make optimal use of environmental resources that constitute a key element in tourism development, maintaining essential ecological processes and helping to conserve natural heritage and biodiversity. (UNWTO) For successful sustainability programme awareness, understanding and commitment to sustainability goals from management and staff are required (Speck, 2002). According to Butlers (1980 cited in Weaver, 2006) Destination Life Cycle, unmonitored and unplanned tourism development resulting into ultimate weakness which may shake the foundation of tourism. Proper facilities and accommodation is one of the first conditions for implementing sustainable tourism. It also requires assurance of booming of a destination and continuous investment to keep the pace of development. It also need be ensure the ecological balance, conservation and biodiversity. Sustainable tourism should not change or spoil the cultural resources, national and social values. Context Chapter Tourism in Bangladesh Figure 2: Map of Bangladesh (Source: Lonely Planet, 2010) Now-a-days, traditional tourist interest on some selected countries has changed. They now intend to explore new areas avoiding the over-crowded destinations. By identifying this changing behavior and trend in global tourist movement, many countries have developed their own tourism industry. Bangladesh is holding high potentiality for tourism. This sector might result multiplier effect on the countrys economy by not only earning foreign currencies but also creating new job opportunities for the huge unemployed population. Realising the fact, GoB has decide to observe 2011 as the year of tourism to acquaint the people with the countrys tourist resources. Bangladesh Geographical Coordinates 24 00 N, 90 00 E Area 56977 sq. miles or 147570 sq. km. Capital Dhaka Currency Taka (TK) Local Time GMT + 6 Population 156,118,464 (July 2010 est.) Weather Tropical; mild winter (October to March); hot, humid summer (March to June); humid, warm rainy monsoon (June to October) Visitor Arrivals (in 2005) 207,662Table 1: Bangladesh Statistics (Bangladesh Pocket Year Book, 2009; The World Factbook) Tourism sector in Bangladesh is mainly supervised by public sector. Government regulates the tourism sector through Bangladesh Parjatan Corporation (BPC), the National Tourism Organization (NTO). With the twofold responsibility of development and promotion of tourism, BPC was established in the year 1972 and commenced business as a Corporation in January 1973. BPC, a semi-autonomous organization is responsible for providing tourism services to construct and run hotels, restaurants, operate duty free shops, transportation and car rental, establish and administer tourism training institution. NTO, on the other hand, is mainly a tourism service provider and promoter of tourism product. To foster the rapid growth of the tourism industry, GoB declared the National Tourism Policy in 1992. Figure 3: Foreign Exchange Earnings from Tourism Other Travels (1996-2005) [Source: Bangladesh Parjatan Corpotation] The tourism industry of Bangladesh has received around Tk. 550 million between 1972 and 2006 while PPP has invested Tk. 1.8 billion on twenty tourism projects FY 2010-11. However, the GoB has realized the importance of tourism sector and shifted from their previous position since FY 2009-10. GoB has allocated Tk. 2.28 billion in the national budget of FY 2009-10 while allocation in 2010-11 amounts Tk. 2.83 billion (MoF, 2010) for the tourism sector. World class accommodation is one of the highest priorities to boost the tourism industry of any country. That is why, nearly 500 hotels, 40 resorts and 15 amusement parks (New Age, 2005) have been built at popular tourist destinations, including Dhaka, Coxs Bazar, Chittagong, Sylhet, Bogra and Khulna during the last two years. Bangladesh possesses the Sundarbans the mangrove forest in the world, Coxs Bazaar the longest natural beach in the whole planet, the exotic tea gardens in Sylhet, the beautiful hills in Rangamati and Bandarban, the wonderful sights and sounds in the Chittagong Hill Tracts, the brilliant natural scenery in Foys Lake, the centuries old Buddhist monasteries and so on. Such places of interest in have managed to attract tourists to Bangladesh from each corner of the world which is reflected in the increasing number of tourist arrival in the country. A total of 165,887 tourists arrived from more than 76 countries in 1996 which increased to 207,662 in 2005 (Appendix 1). Moreover, foreign exchange earnings from tourism has increased from Tk. 33.59 million in 1996 to Tk. 69.91 million in 2005 (Appendix 2). Methodology A theoretical approach provides a guiding framework for analyzing and interpreting the data (Finn, 2000). It helps a researcher to remain consistent while collecting data and knowledge form them (Jennings, 2001). There are a number of theoretical approaches for research but only very few are appropriate (Veal, 2006). Conducting the research, the researcher has mainly used secondary data and qualitative methodologies. Qualitative methodologies are associated with the interpretive approach of research (Veal, 2006). Jennings (2001) mentions researcher-participants subjective relationship as well as the participants considering the researcher as an insider. Unstructured research design, data displayed in textual form, highlighting key themes and a specific study setting are other qualitative features (Veal, 2006). The advantage of using secondary data is the freedom from arbitration by the interaction between the researcher and researched (Jennings, 2001). Data from MoF, BPC, MoCAT, SB, and NTO mainly helped to have a clear idea about the condition of tourism in Bangladesh from governments view. Future suggestions for sustainable tourism in Bangladesh by the authorities of Jamuna Resort, Padma Resort, Foys Lake Resort and Motel Atlantis have helped the researcher in conducting the research successfully. The data collected from different sources has been analysed to assess the future growth of the economy of Bangladesh. One major problem in collecting data on tourism in Bangladesh is that there is no updated database in any authorities of the government nor the private sector has any recent statistics on the sector. Government bodies are rather non-cooperative rather than the private tourist operators. Jamuna Resort, Padma Resort, Foys Lake Resort and Motel Atlantis authorities only provided their suggestion for creating a tourism friendly environment in the country. As most of the government bodies in Bangladesh have linked to internet in 2010 and most of the officials do not have email address, they could not be reached. Data from BPC and MoCAT have covered most of the data collected on the present scenario of tourism in Bangladesh. Most of the tourist facilities are offered by the private sector but do not posses any data on tourism in Bangladesh as they are only concern about their business. However, suggestions provided by the private sector tourist operators have also been added in the research paper so that the policy makers can consider them while formulating future policies for sustainable tourism in Bangladesh. Result and Analysis For conducting the research successfully, primary and secondary data has been compiled and sectioned into several themes. The challenges and opportunities of tourism in Bangladesh have been identified through the analysis of data. It not only identifies the possibilities of tourism sector in Bangladesh but also forecasts the tourism potential of the country. The outcomes of the analysis are enlisted here: Tourists visiting Bangladesh Data from BPC and SB reveals the nationality and real purpose of the tourist visiting Bangladesh. Tastes of the tourists vary from person to person, even region to region; so, it is better to understand the tourist pattern of the country. Types of Tourists Analysing the data it is found that tourists visit Bangladesh mainly on three purposes. However, higher percentage of 42 visits on business purpose while 23 percent visit for pleasure. Representative of BPC stated that the percentage of tourist visiting for pleasure is increasing day by day as the tourism products of the country are improvising rapidly. Figure 4: Purpose of the tourists for visiting (Source: BPC) Nationality of Tourists Arrivals Africa 1730 America 18673 E/A Pacific 35976 Europe 48961 M/East 2861 A/Asia 99459 Table 2: Foreign Visitor Arrivals by Region 2005 (Source: BPC)Data analysis of the year 2005 shows that 48 percent tourists visiting the country are from the Asian nations while visitors from Europe hold the second position with 24 percent. Percentage of tourist arrival from Asia Pacific, America, Africa and Middle East are 17, 9, 1 and 1 percent respectively. The number of tourists from SAARC countries total 99010 which means only 449 tourists from the rest of Asian nations have visited the country in 2005. Tourism Products in Bangladesh Tourists naturally compares the products a destination is offering with another one for ensuring the proper utilization of both money and time as well as peace of mind, relaxation, perfect ambience, improved accommodation and so on. Therefore, it is the duty of the policymakers of a destination to take necessary action for providing the tourism products to the tourists according to the demand. Accommodation World class accommodation is one of the highest priorities to boost the tourism industry of any country. In the previous years both the public and private sector have realised the need of accommodation of higher standard in the country. That is why, nearly 500 hotels, 40 resorts and 15 amusement parks (New Age, 2005) have been built at popular tourist destinations, including Dhaka, Coxs Bazar, Chittagong, Sylhet, Bogra and Khulna during the last two years. Even the government run BPC has increased their area of coverage to 16 regions with 5 hotels, 17 motels and one cottage. Tourism Product Bangladesh with three World Heritage Sites Mahasthangarh, Mosque City of Bagerhat and the Sundarbans, has a lot to offer to the tourists. Worlds longest 120 km long sandy beach of Coxs Bazar along with Patenga, Parki, Teknaf, St. Martin Island and Kuakata beach will definitely quench the thirst of beach lovers. The beauty of the largest mangrove forest in the world, the Sundarbans, can amaze anyone while travelling in steam boats and experiencing the diversity and ecosystem of the forest. The lake district of Rangamati, the lake town of Kaptai, the hilltop town of Khagrachhari and the roof of Bangladesh: Bandarban will bring the tourists close to nature they may not have gone before. Archeological sites of Buddhists monasteries, Hindu temples and Muslim mosques and palaces can educate the tourist seeking archeological knowledge of South Asia and Bangladesh. Besides these, there are many places of interest in the country which might draw the attractions of the tourists. Impacts of Tourism National and global impacts of tourism influence the overall situation of a country concerning its economy, socio-economic condition, ecology and environment. Tourism enriches economy, exchanges social and cultural values, and conserves nature; however, it has some negative impacts as well. Economic Impact Tourists contribute to sales, profits, jobs, tax revenues, and income in an area or a country. Tourism activity normally focuses on changes in sales, income, and employment in a region. Thus, the economic benefits of tourism are well documented. In case of Bangladesh, contribution of tourism in the economy of the country is gradually increasing. The contribution of the sector is expected to get higher in the forthcoming years due to gigantic investment of public and private sector. The contribution of travel tourism to GDP is expected to rise from 3.9% (Tk. 265.9 billion) in 2010 to 4.1% (Tk. 788.4 billion) by 2020 (WTTC, 2007). It is also anticipated to create an employment opportunity of 2,373,000 in 2010 which might increase to 3,114,000 by 2010. In the current year, an estimated amount of Tk. 64.0 billion is expected to be invested in travel tourism sector. It is not necessary that tourism has all positive impacts. Tourism is closely associated with uncontrolled, unsustainable and massed tourism growth. With a purpose of making money by selling experiences, tourism is mainly dominated by private enterprises. Market led planning can fail to achieve the objectives of sustainable tourism. Like all industries, impacts do occur, but the extent to which impacts are negative can be minimised. Socio-Cultural Impact An interface for cultural exchange, tourism facilitates the interaction between communities and visitors. As travels means to discover those things unknown or forgotten within ourselves, people want to interact with other cultures, learn about traditions and even confront themselves with new perspectives on life and society. Tourism can serve as a supportive force for peace, foster pride in cultural traditions and help avoid urban relocation by creating local jobs. The society can take the valuable aspects of another society vis-Ã  -vis culture through tourism. The more one knows and learns about a destination, the more fulfilling the experience would be. As tourism involves movement of people to different geographical locations, and establishment of social relations between people who would otherwise not meet, cultural clashes can take place as a result of differences in cultures, ethnicity, religion, values, lifestyles, languages, and levels of prosperity. The interest shown by tourists also contributes to the sense of self-worth of the artists and helps to conserve a cultural tradition, cultural erosion due to the commoditization of cultural goods. Environmental Impact Tourism has beneficial effects on the environment by contributing to environmental protection and conservation. It raises the awareness of environmental values and can serve as a tool to finance protection of natural areas. Most of the national parks are now conserved by the public administration due to the rising demand of tourism. The GoB has decided to conserve all the forests, places of natural beauties and build a marine park at Coxs Bazar to draw the attraction of the tourists from the each corner of the world. Development of tourism can gradually destroy the environmental resources on which it depends. Land and water witness the most negative impacts of tourism in the country. For the development of the sector, more and more lands are used to build infrastructure to create facilities for the tourists resulting to the shortage of land and water as well. Sewerage littering, deforestation, air and noise pollution are some of the many negative impacts of tourism on environment. Conclusion Destinations interested in attracting foreign visitors and in developing sustainable tourist industries depend heavily on traveller perceptions of safety and peace (Sonmez, 2002: 176). The aim of the research is to identify the challenges that the sector of tourism is facing currently and to asses the future as well. Tourism of Bangladesh has not flourished yet due to the unwillingness of the previous government. MoCAT has the highest allocation of Tk. 2.83 billion since the independence of the country in 1971. PPP is also working efficiently for fostering the growth of tourism with the financing from MNCs. Bangladesh as a tourist destination has many things to offer: beaches, hillside, forests, waterfall, historical and archeological sites, amusement parks and many more. The country is now on the track to enrich the tourism sector like the other nations for a better contribution on the GDP. The lack of world-class accommodation near all places of interests is now under construction which may result into more tourist arrival in the country. If tourism is to be successful in the future, public and management must strive for all four goals: enhanced visitor satisfactions, improved economy and business success, sustainable resource use, and community and area integration. (Gunn with Var, 2002: 105) All the forecast during the research indicate the rapid growth of tourism in Bangladesh. Now, the question is whether the growth will be sustainable or not. It is the responsibility of the government as well as the private sector to emerge the tourism for sustainability so that it can conserve the environment, socio-cultural structure and contribute revenue to the economy to make Bangladesh a middle-income country by 2021 (year of silver jubilee of independence). Suggestions for the Future Development of Tourism The four private tourism operator of Bangladesh have provided the following recommendations for the future development of tourism in the country. Improved transport system Infrastructural development of tourism industry Uninterrupted power supply Development of human resources in the sector of tourism Preservation of places of natural beauty Improved marketing strategy of the government Proper planning of the government for ensuring sustainable tourism References Bangladesh Bureau of Statistics (2010) Statistical Pocket Book 2009 [Online] Available: http://www.bbs.gov.bd/WebTestApplication/userfiles/Image/SubjectMatterDataIndex/pk_book_09.pdf [November 23, 2010] Bangladesh Parjatan Corporation (2010) Foreign Exchange Earnings fron Tourism Other Travels (1996-2005) [Online] Available: http://www.bangladeshtourism.gov.bd/2006_resource_center_foreign_sh3.php [November 21, 2010] Bangladesh Parjatan Corporation (2010) Foreign Visitor Arrivals by Region 2005 [Online] Available: http:// http://www.bangladeshtourism.gov.bd/2006_resource_center_foreign_sh6.php#2 [November 21, 2010] Bangladesh Parjatan Corporation (2010) Visitor Arrivals by Nationality (1996-2005) [Online] Available: http://www.bangladeshtourism.gov.bd/2006_resource_center_foreign_sh8_vistorArriaval.php#3 [November 21, 2010] Bangladesh Parjatan Corporation (2010) Foreign Exchange Earnings from Tourism Other Travels (1996-2005) [Online] Available: http://www.bangladeshtourism.gov.bd/2006_resource_center_foreign_sh3.php [November 21, 2010] Bushell, R. (2001) Practice, Provision and Impacts, In Douglas, N.; Douglas, N.; Derrett, R. (Eds) (2001) Special Interest Tourism, Queensland: John Wiley and Sons Australia Central Intelligence Agency, Bangladesh [Online] Available: https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/geos/bg.html [November 20, 2010] Finn, M.; Elliott-White, M. and Walton, M. (2000) Tourism and Leisure Research Methods: data collection, analysis and interpretation, Essex: Pearson Education Limited Gunn, C.A. with Var, T. (2002) Tourism Planning: basics, concepts and cases, 4th Edition, London: Routledge Jennings, G. (2001) Tourism Research, Queensland: John Wiley Sons Australia Ltd Lonely Planet (2010) Map of Bangladesh [Online] Available: http://www.lonelyplanet.com/maps/asia/bangladesh/ [November 20, 2010] Mathieson, A. and Wall, G. (2006) Tourism: Change, Impacts and Opportunities, Essex: Pearson Education Ltd McElroy, J.L. and de Albuquerque, K. (2002) Problems for managing sustainable tourism in small islands, In Apostolopoulos, Y. and Gayle, D.J. (Eds) (2002) Island Tourism and Sustainable Development: Caribbean, Pacific and Mediterranean experiences, Connecticut: Praeger Ministry of Finance (2010) Development Expenditure by Ministry [Online] Available: http://www.mof.gov.bd/en/budget/10_11/brief/en/st10.pdf?phpMyAdmin=GqNisTr562C5oxdV,EruqlWwoM5 [November 21, 2010] New Age (2005) Private sector leads countrys tourism booms [Online] Available: http://www.newagebd.com/2010/jun/14/busi.html [November 23, 2010] Sonmez, S. (2002) Sustaining Tourism in Islands Under Sociopolitical Adversity, In Apostolopoulos, Y. and Gayle, D.J. (Eds) (2002) Island Tourism and Sustainable Development: Caribbean, Pacific and Mediterranean experiences, Connecticut: Praeger Speck, E. (2002) The Fairmount Chateau Whistler Resort: moving towards sustainability, In Harris, R.; Griffin, T. and Williams, P. (Eds) (2002) Sustainable Tourism: a global perspective, Oxford: Elsevier Science Ltd UNWTO, World Tourism Organization Definition of Tourism [Online] Available: http://www.linkbc.ca/torc/downs1/WTOdefinitiontourism.pdf?PHPSESSID=ugcfjttizdv [November 20, 2010] UNWTO, World Tourism Organization Sustainable Development of Tourism [Online] Available: http://www.unwto.org/sdt/mission/en/mission.php [November 20, 2010] Veal, A. (2006) Research Methods for Leisure and Tourism: a practical guide, 3rd Edition, Essex: Pearson Education Limited Views On Tourism (2008) How to develop the Bangladeshi tourism sector [Online] Available: http://www.viewsontourism.info/2010/how-to-develop-the-bangladeshi-tourism-sector/ [November 21, 2010] Weaver, D. (2006) Sustainable Tourism, Oxford: Elsevier WTTC, World Travel Tourism Council (2007) Travel Tourism Economic Impact: Bangladesh 2010 [Online] Available: http://www.wttc.org/bin/pdf/original_pdf_file/bangladesh.pdf [November 20, 2010] Appendices Appendix 1 Email to Private Operators Dear Sir/Madam, I am conducting a research study as part of a Bachelors degree in International Tourism and Hospitality Management at EThames Graduate College in London, England. My research exa

Development of Dynamic Contrast-Enhanced MRI

Development of Dynamic Contrast-Enhanced MRI Ioannis Tolios â€Å"Dynamic Contrast-Enhanced MRI† Introduction One of the most significant non-invasive imaging modalities applied both in research and clinical diagnostics cis Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI). Its widespread use is partially based on its characteristic to visualize tissues with high resolutions in 3D and its ability to provide anatomical, functional and metabolic tissue information in vivo (Strijkers, Mulder, van Tilborg, Nicolay, 2007). In an MR image, the basic contrast mostly derives from regional differences in the intrinsic T1, T2 relaxation times, except for local water content differences. T1 and T2 relaxation times can be selected independently to have a commanding influence on image contrast. Nevertheless, a sensitive and accurate diagnosis cannot always be feasible, due to the fact that the intrinsic water, T1 and T2 contrast values are modified and become very often limited by tissue pathology. Consequently, the need for enhanced image contrast led to the growing use of intravenously injected MRI contrast agents, wh ose use although violates partially the non-invasive character of MRI brought about significant benefits. Combining MRI and contrast agents (CA) increases the possibilities to image inflamed tissues in pathologies, such as arthritis, atherosclerotic plaques, and tumor angiogenesis (Strijkers, Mulder, van Tilborg, Nicolay, 2007). Definition of DCE-MRI A technique which combines MRI and contrast agents is Dynamic Contrast-Enhanced MRI (DCE-MRI). According to Gordon et al. (Gordon, et al., 2014), â€Å"DCE-MRI analyzes the temporal enhancement pattern of a tissue following the introduction of a paramagnetic contrast agent into the vascular system. This is accomplished by the acquisition of baseline images without contrast enhancement, succeeded by a set of images acquired over time (usually over a few minutes) during and after the arrival of the contrast agent in the tissue of interest†. A time intensity curve (TIC) for the tissue is generated by the acquired signal, as it can be seen in Figure 1. In a TIC, the response of the tissue is represented in enhancement values to the arrival of the contrast agent. Specific physiological properties that are in association with the microvascular blood flow, including tissue volume fractions, vessel permeability, and vessel surface area product, can be extracted by analyzing a TIC (Gordon, et al., 2014). Figure 1: An example of a time intensity curve obtained from a tumor metastasis (Bonekamp Macura, 2008). All variations of DCE-MRI studies are relied on a rather plain fundamental principle: the MR signal intensity of a tissue is modified, when a paramagnetic particle (contrast agent) penetrates and spreads over through the tissue, based on its local concentration (Gordon, et al., 2014). MR images of a chosen region of interest (ROI) are obtained in time intervals of few seconds before, during, and after the intravenous injection of a contrast agent. Each obtained image represents one time point, and each and every pixel in a set of images produces its own intensity curve. After the injection of the CA, the signal intensity varies at every time point (is related to the concentration of the CA in the tissue) based on tissue parameters, including vascularization, vessels’ permeability and surface area product, and in this way parametric maps of particular microvascular biomarkers can be extracted. Furthermore, by using suitable mathematical models absolute values of the aforementioned parameters can be estimated. These parameters usually reflect a compartmental pharmacokinetics model demonstrated by CAs, which are allocated between the intravascular and extravascular spaces as it can be seen in Figure 2 (Gordon, et al., 2014). Figure 2: Toft’s compartmental model for calculating DCE-MRI quantitative pharmakokinetic parameters (Verma, et al., 2012). DCE-MRI techniques Currently, two DCE-MRI techniques are defined based on its registration and the origin of the extracted signal. As MRI is highly sensitive to small concentrations of paramagnetic materials passing through a tissue, there are two different physical-chemical properties (Gordon, et al., 2014). Relaxation effect T1, T2 tissue relaxation times are reduced when a diffusible contrast agent is used. Positively enhanced T1-weighted images are generated, when this effect is used and the studies evaluating this effect are characterized asDynamic Contrast Enhanced(DCE)-MRI,T1-W DCE. Susceptibility effect When a paramagnetic contrast agent is located in the intravascular space of a tissue and its magnetic susceptibility is much higher than that of the surrounding tissue water, local magnetic inhomogeneities between the intra and extravascular space emerge, which generate negative enhanced T2 or T2* weighted images during the passage of the CA through the capillaries. Studies depending on this phenomenon are characterized asDynamic Susceptibility Contrast(DSC)-MRI or T2*-W DCE. Image Acquisition Gordon et al. (Gordon, et al., 2014) state that the method of quantification to be applied depends on the number of the measurements, which are required in order to obtain the data; thus, the measurements include: I. Creating a map of pre-contrast native T1 values, which is necessary in order to calculate the CA concentrations. II. Acquiring heavily T1-weighted images, prior and following the Contrast Agent introduction. In this case, high temporal resolution is needed in order to have the ability to further characterize the kinetics of the contrast agent’s entry and exit of the tissue. Typically, 3D image sets are acquired sequentially for 5–10 minutes every few seconds. The ideal for the acquisitions would be to be obtained approximately every 5 seconds, in order to allow the detection of early enhancement. With longer acquisitions (for instance, > 15 seconds), it becomes harder to detect early enhancement. III. Acquisition of the arterial input function (AIF), in order to estimate the CA concentration in the blood plasma of a feeding artery as a function of time. Acquiring the AIF is necessary for almost all quantitative analysis methods and is up to now technically the most difficult part in the data acquisition process. Contrast agents The most regularly used group of contrast agents in DCE-MRI is the low molecular paramagnetic gadolinium (Gd) chelates (Gribbestad, Gjesdal, Nilsen, Lundgren, Hjelstuen, Jackson, 2005). Principally, in Dynamic Contrast-Enhanced MRI, any low molecular weight CAs can be used. (Tofts). The use of contrast agents with high molecular weights leads to lower permeability and lower Ktrans values, since these agents remain in the intravascular space. Using macromolecular CAs the measurement of regional blood volume acquiring scans of low temporal resolution is feasible (Gribbestad, Gjesdal, Nilsen, Lundgren, Hjelstuen, Jackson, 2005). Molecular agent with high molecular weight might be more appropriate for tumor angiogenesis and thus offer better response evaluation to therapy (Turkbey, Thomasson, Pang, Bernardo, Choyke, 2010). Analysis Methods Gordon et al. (Gordon, et al., 2014) state that â€Å"the arrival of CA and thus the enhancement pattern of the tissue depend on a wide variety of factors including vascularity, capillary permeability, perfused capillary surface area, volume and composition of extracellular fluid, renal clearance and perfusion. The analysis of DCE data can provide valuable information concerning the vascular status and perfusion†. Data analysis can be performed using either: qualitative, semi-quantitative, and quantitative approach (Verma, et al., 2012). Qualitative This kind of analysis can range from visual inspection of the images for fast and extreme enhancement of lesions, to the plotting of kinetic curves of signal intensity against time (Gupta, Kauffman, Polascik, Taneja, Rosenkrantz, 2013). The qualitative analysis of DCE-MRI depends on the assumption of rapid and intense enhancement and wash-out as indicator of the existence of a tumor. The tumor vessels are generally leakier and more readily enhanced after the injection of the CA than the ordinary vessels. An early rapid high enhancement after injection is expected followed by a relatively rapid decline compared with a slower and continuously increasing signal for normal tissues during the first few minutes after contrast injection. However, the possibility for an overlap between the natural and the malignant tissues, limit the capabilities of this DCE-MRI approach. Finally, the qualitative approach is regarded as a subjective approach and therefore difficult to standardi ze among institutions, constituting multicenter trials less reliable (Verma, et al., 2012). Semi-quantitative – The semi-quantitative approach also depends on the same assumption as the qualitative approach. On the other hand, in the semi-quantitative analysis various curve parameters are integrated (Verma, et al., 2012). It must be mentioned that depending on the application area, different perfusion parameters are relevant. Nevertheless, some parameters are of general interest for almost all applications. These parameters are acquired to characterize the shape of the TIC, including the time of first arrival of the CA, peak enhancement ( PE the maximum value normalized if the baseline is subtracted), time to peak (TTP the timepoint where peak enhancement takes place), integral (the area between the baseline and the curve, indicating with PE if blood supply is reduced in a ROI), mean transit time (MTT – the timepoint where the integral is bisected), slope (the curve’s steepness during wash-in phase, downslope (the descending curve’s steepness i n wash-out phase ) and wash-in and wash-out curve shapes (Figure 1, Figure 3A). (Preim et al., 2009). Three common dynamic curve types exist in the literature after the initial CA uptake: type 1, persistent increase; type 2, plateau; and type 3, wash-out after initial slope, as it can be seen in Figure 3B and Figure 1. Even though the semi-quantitative approach is used widely in the evaluation of DCE-MRI, significant restrictions arise dealing with the factors contributing to the MR signal intensity (e.g. generalization across acquisition protocols, sequences), which have an effect on the curve metrics (Verma, et al., 2012). Figure 3: A) A typical TIC curve (Preim et al., 2009). B) Differentiation of three patterns of washout phase: type 1 (blue), progressive; type 2 (green), plateau ; type 3 (red), wash-out (Verma, et al., 2012). Factors like the injection rate and the temporal resolution can easily alter the shape of a wash-in/washout curve, creating difficulties in comparison and quantitation. High inter-patient variability is also a factor that can make the definition of threshold values more complex for every parameter that could standardize semi-quantitative approach. However, this approach is relatively simple which makes it even more appealing (Verma, et al., 2012). Quantitative The quantitative approach depends on modeling the concentration change of the CA by integrating pharmacokinetic modeling techniques (Gordon, et al., 2014). Several pharmacokinetic models were proposed, such as by Tofts (Tofts), Brix et al. (Brix et al., 1991). Most of them depend on estimating the exchange rate between extracellular space and blood plasma using some transfer rate constants, like Ktrans(forward volume transfer constant) andkep(reverse reflux rate constant between extracellular space and plasma). â€Å"The transfer constant,Ktrans, is equal to the permeability surface area product per unit volume of tissue.Moreover, Ktransdetermines the flux from the intravascular space to the extracellular space; it may principally represent the vascular permeability in a permeability-limited situation (high flow in relation to permeability), or it may represent the blood flow into the tissue in a flow-limited situation (high permeability in relation to flow). Theveis t he extracellular extravascular volume fraction, andkep=Ktrans/ veexpresses the rate constant, describing the efflux of contrast media from the extracellular space back to plasma. Thevpis the fraction of plasma per unit volume of tissue†, according to Verma et al. (Verma, et al., 2012). In quantitative DCE-MRI analysis, a four compartment model is used for â€Å"tissue†: plasma, extracellular space, intracellular space, and renal excretory pathway (Figure 2). This pharmacokinetic model is applied to the CA concentration changes in the artery (AIF) supplying the tissue of interest, and the CA concentration of the tissue. It must also be noted that due to the fact that pharmacokinetic models require concentration values, signal intensity must be converted to T1 values, because MRI signal intensity is not linear with the CA concentration (Verma, et al., 2012). Clinical Applications of DCE-MRI DCE-MRI has been used for the detection and characterization of tumors in the clinical setting. It also makes the monitoring of tumor treatment and the response to conventional chemotherapy and angiogenic therapies feasible by acting as biomarker (Figure 4). Early tumor detection and treatment affects significantly the survival of patients. DCE-MRI is applied increasingly in a wider range of patients with different kind of cancer, including breast, head and prostate cancer. The method’s quantification ability of characteristics of the lesion microvasculature has stimulated the scientists to use the technique for â€Å"in-vivo staging† of tumors. According to early studies in the field, an evident relationship was demonstrated between large and rapid increases in malignant behavior and signal enhancement in tumors located in prostate, breast, and head. Additionally, important overlapping of contrast enhancement patterns has been noticed between malignant and benign tumor s. Growing accuracy and specificity in the recognition of microvascular characterization parameters is expected to further ameliorate lesion characterization (Gribbestad, Gjesdal, Nilsen, Lundgren, Hjelstuen, Jackson, 2005). More specifically regarding prostate cancer detection and localization, DCE-MRI contributes to prostate MRI, succeeding higher specificity and sensitivity than T2-weighted MR imaging, and sextant u ltrasound guided biopsy, methods being used widely for the pre-treatment work up and screening of prostate cancer respectively (Choi, Kim, Kim, 2007; Bonekamp Macura, 2008). It has been proven that the multi-parametric approach has improved significantly the accuracy of prostate MRI and has a great future. In a cancerous tissue, the number of vessels and their permeability are increased in comparison with normal tissues. Moreover, the interstitial space is greater. These factors cause significant increase of contrast enhancement parameters, such as MTT, blood flow, interstitial volume. The aforementioned observations are applicable in prostate cancer, too. As it can be seen in Figure 3B, the red curve could represent a prostate cancer with faster and steeper enhancement and faster wash-out than in normal tissues. Figure 4 a-c (Turkbey, Thomasson, Pang, Bernardo, Choyke, 2010): a) A patient with prostate cancer. The arrow indicates a low signal intensity focus on axial T2W MR image B) Increased enhancement shown by the lesion on axial T1W DCE-MR image C) fusion of color-coded Ktrans Conclusion The determination of functional microvascular parameters by using DCE-MRI might be instrumental in evaluating many vascular diseases. The potential of the technique to assess the severity of illnesses, to non-invasively and in parallel measure multiple relevant parameters, to study the pathophysiology of diseases, seems to be extremely promising. Even though, the method is known for over 20 years it is still considered immature. This has mainly to do with the significant variations in data analysis and acquisition protocols from study to study. Furthermore, the analysis of the pharmacokinetic parameters is a complex task and computationally expensive, due to the existence of plethora of analysis algorithms (Gordon, et al., 2014). DCE-MRI is restricted in organs with physiologic motion, including lungs and liver, and may not be applicable in some specific group of patients, especially those with renal failure and claustrophobia (Turkbey, Thomasson, Pang, Bernardo, Choyke, 2010). However, although the extraction of quantitative pharmacokinetic parameters is more difficult, compartmental model based methods are more robust than the semi-quantitative approaches, and offer deeper understanding of physiology. Finally, they are not potentially based on the scanning technique, the type of scanner, and individual patient variations ( Gordon, et al., 2014).

Francis Bacon :: Biography

He went to Trinity College when he was twelve years old. He wrote more than thirty philosophical works. He was elected to the House of Commons in 1584. Who is this intelligent person? Francis Bacon. Intelligent and daring, Francis Bacon wrote many letters to important people and philosophical works. Bacon was born in London, England on January 22, 1561. His father was Sir Nicholas Bacon who was a lord keeper of the great seal and his mother was Lady Anne Coke Bacon. She was daughter of Sir Anthony Cooke, who was the tutor to the Tudor royal family. He was the sixth child in the family (â€Å"Francis Bacon† par 1). Bacon was home schooled until he was twelve years old by John Walsall who had graduated Oxford after he attended Trinity College in Cambridge for three years before going to Gray’s Inn in London (â€Å"Francis Bacon† par 2). After college from 1527 to 1578, Bacon traveled with Sir Amias Paulet to Paris. Sir Amias Paulet was the English Ambassador for Paris. During this time, Bacon learned a lot about politics. He was on a mission to study civil law, state politics and language. To learn he traveled to place like Spain, Italy, Tours, Poitiers and Blois (â€Å"Francis Bacon† Par 2). During this time he also worked on some routine diplomatic tasks. He did this until the sudden death of his father. When his father died he returned to England. Bacon interrupted his studies for a position in the diplomatic service in France (Simpson Par 3). He has written over thirty philosophical works. Most of these works are incomplete. They were taken as intervals between Parliament and the Courts (Meyrick Par 1). He was elected into the House of Commons in 1584 and served until 1614 (Simpson Par 1). He rose to the highest political office under James I. Bacon took role of mediator in February 1611. This was the last session of Parliament held under James I (â€Å"Francis Bacon† Par 2). He was one of the leading figures in natural philosophy. He was a lawyer, member of Parliament and Queens Council. He wrote questions about law, state and religion (â€Å"Francis Bacon† Par 1). On May 10, 1606 Bacon married Alice Barnham, who was a young rich lady. They were engaged for three years. He was forty-five and Alice was only fourteen years old. On April 9, 1626 Bacon died outside of London from pneumonia while experimenting with refrigerated foods.